BCDF - Internship reports
National Director, NATIONAL MOVEMENT OF LA RAZA, a community based
group ..... of action and commitment to bringing Black families back td New
Orleans. ...... Johari Abdul-Malik: Muslim Chaplain, Howard University,
Washington, D.C..
part of the document
ts Including71.7.2Independent Association / Dealers 81.7.3In Depth Interviews 81.7.4Structured and Unstructured Interviews 81.7.5Secondary Data 8SECTION 2 IMPROVEMENT OF MINING / QUARRYING TECHNIQUES AND TO SUGGEST WAYS ON CAPACITY ENHANCEMENT OF LOCAL MINERS PART 1: GEOLOGY2.1Introduction and Summary 92.2Mode of Gemstones Occurrence 102.3Detailed Report on Gemstones and their Localities in Baltistan, Northern Areas of Pakistan 102.3.1Gemstone Mineralization of Baltistan Region 102.3.2Gem Pegmatites of Baltistan and their Mineral Contents 102.4Gem Bearing Pegmatites of the Haramosh Region 122.4.1In the Haramosh Region the Gem Bearing Pagmatites Occurs at Four Principal Localities 122.5Gemstones and Gem Bearing Pegmatite of Stak Nala Roundo15 S. No.Title Page No.2.6Geology and Structure at Stak Nala Mine 182.6.1Internal Zonation in the Pegmatite Sills: Main Mine Area202.7Gemstones and Gem Bearing Pegmatites of Shigar Valley Baltistan (Karakoram Range)222.7.1Introduction 222.7.2Gem Bearing Pegmatite in the Southern Karakoram, Dussu Area of Shigar Valley 232.7.2.1Dassu242.7.2.2Niyit Bruk242.7.2.3Gone 262.7.2.4Tistung 262.8Gemstones of the Shigar Valley Pegmatites 262.8.1Beryl (Aquamarine)262.8.2Fluorite 262.8.3Almandine Garnet 272.8.4Manganotantalite 272.8.5Schorl272.8.6Topaz 272.8.7Quartz 27PART 2: MINING 2.9Mining 282.9.1Surface Mining 282.9.2Underground Mining 282.9.3Factors to be Considered for the Selection of Mining Methods 282.9.3.1Spatial Characteristics of Deposit 282.9.3.2Geological Characteristics of the Host Rock and Mineral Deposit 292.9.3.3Geo Technical (Soil and Rock Mechanics) Properties of Both the Ore and Country Rock292.9.3.4Economic Consideration 292.9.3.5Technological Factors 292.9.3.6Environmental Concerns 292.9.4Major Gemstones Mining Areas in Baltistan 292.9.5Number of Gemstones Explored / Mined in Baltistan 302.9.6New Gemstones / Mining Areas Identified 302.9.7Existing Gemstones Mining Practices in Baltistan 312.9.7.1Method Employed 312.9.7.2Open Pit Mining 312.9.7.3Underground Mining 322.9.8Problems Faced by the Gemstone Sector of Baltistan 332.9.8.1Infrastructure Condition to the Mining Sites 342.9.9Size of Mining Operation 36 S. No.Title Page No.2.9.10Small Scale Mining 362.9.10.1Traditional Small Scale Mining 362.9.10.2Advantages of Small Scale Mining 372.9.10.3Disadvantages of Small Scale Mining 382.9.11Supply and Demand 392.9.12Proposed Mining Methods 392.9.12.1Stope and Pillar or Selective Room and Pillar Mining Method 402.9.12.2Extraction Techniques 412.9.12.3Machinery 422.9.12.4Supports 432.9.12.5Transportation 442.9.12.6Ventilation 442.9.12.7Lighting 442.9.12.8Platform 44SECTION 3 INTRODUCTION OF VALUE ADDITION IN THE FORM OF GEMSTONES CUTTING AND POLISHING AND TO SUGGEST ADEQUATE LAPIDARY EQUIPMENT AND MACHINERY 3.1Summary 453.2Basic Definitions 463.2.1What is a Mineral? 463.2.2What are Gems?463.2.3What is Gemmology?473.2.4What is Lapidary?473.2.5What Makes a Good Gemstone?473.2.6What Makes a Valuable Gemstone?473.3Importance of Lapidary 483.3.1Lapidary Importance for Increasing the Export of Gemstones in Cut and Polish Form 493.3.2Major Gemstones of Baltistan 493.4The Process of Gemstones Cutting and Polishing 503.4.1The Stages in Cutting a Gemstone 503.4.2Dopping 513.4.3Grinding 513.4.4Sanding513.4.5Polishing 513.4.6Process of Faceting and Polishing of Gemstones 523.4.7Cutting Laps 533.4.8Polishing Laps 543.4.9Rough Classification of Abrasives 543.4.10Level Adjustment 55
S. No.Title Page No.3.4.11Understanding the Polishing Process 553.4.12Material to Start on 563.5Utilization Aspects of the Important Equipment Essential to Gem Testing 573.5.1The Refractrometer 573.5.2The Polariscope 573.5.3The Spectroscope 573.5.4Specific Gravity Determination 583.5.5Dichroscope 583.5.6Gemolite Binocular Microscope 583.5.7Ultra Violet Lamps (Black Light)583.5.8Hardness Pencil Set 583.5.9Thermal Conductometer 583.5.10Chelsea or Emerald Filter 583.6Gems Cutting, Polishing and Faceting Training Workshop 593.7Gemstones Testing and Identification Equipment 593.8Lapidary Consumable Parts and Polishing Powders 603.9Gems Cutting, Polishing and Faceting Training Workshop for 20 Number of Trainees in Lapidary 613.10Gemstones Testing and Identification Equipment for 10 Number of Students in Gem Testing / Identification 623.11Lapidary Consumable Parts and Polishing Powders for 20 Number of Trainees in Lapidary 633.12Working Conditions of Machinery if Installed at Baltistan 643.12.1Size of Units and Status of Power Supply643.12.2Estimated Cost of the Unit 653.12.3Location of Processing Units 653.13Study of Similar Nature of Project in the Country 663.13.1Gems Testing Instruments in the Gemmological Laboratory of GGIP 673.13.2Lapidary Training Workshop Facilities 673.13.3List of Cutting and Polishing Machines Purchased for Lapidary at GGIP 683.13.4Library 713.13.5Physical Progress of GGIP713.13.6Impact of GGIP, Peshawar on Local Gemstones Industry 713.14Problem will Faced / Constraints 71 S. No.Title Page No.SECTION 4 MARKETING METHODS, CHANNELS AND DESTINATIONS OF THE GEMSTONE PRODUCTS 4.1Summary 734.1.1The Local Market 734.1.2Marketing Plan for Local Sales and Exports 744.1.3The International Marekt 744.2Bringing Coloured Gems to the Market Place 744.2.1Sourcing 754.2.2Buying Styles 754.2.3Distribution 764.3Gemstone Dealing, Supply, Fashion and Price 764.3.1Price 764.3.2Marketing Channels 774.3.3Categories of Rough Gemstones 774.4Marketing Strategy 774.4.1The Marketing Process 774.4.2Identifying the Market 784.4.3Research the Market 784.4.4Product Placement 784.4.5Selling 784.4.6Why are Market Trends Important?784.5Overview of the Gemstones Market Today 794.5.1International Standards of Gemstones 794.5.2Global Trends 804.5.3Treatment 804.5.4Suggestion for the New Markets 804.5.5Present Market for Rough Unpolished and Finished Products of Precious and Semi Precious Stones 804.5.6International Major Market of Gemstones 814.5.7Major Buyer of Gemstones from Pakistan 814.5.8Gemstone Export in order of Priority 814.5.9Country wise Pakistan Exports of Precious / Semi Precious Stones 824.6Suggestions for Marketing of Our Indigenous Gemstones Products 834.6.1Export of Gems and Jewellery from Pakistan 834.6.2Present Market for Rough, Unpolished and Finished Products of Precious and Semi Precious Stones844.6.3Marketing Plan, Sale / Export 844.6.4Sale Centres 844.6.5Promotion 84 S. No.Title Page No.4.6.6International Marketing through Website Publications 854.6.7Export Promotion Bureau of Pakistan 854.6.8Pakistan Board of Investment 864.7Regional Market Survey and Visit Report of Potential Gemstones Deposits / Mines in Baltistan 864.7.1Introduction 864.7.2Local Market Survey of Gemstones Marketing in Skardu City894.7.3Observation 894.7.4Visit Report of Potential Gemstones Deposits / Mines in Baltistan 934.7.5Topaz Deposits at Dassu 934.7.6Reported Emeralds Deposits at Seweri 974.7.7Roundu Area of Baltistan1004.7.8Astak Nala Roundu1004.8Observations of other Trading Markets of Regional and National Level 1044.8.1Gemstones market at Namak Mandi Peshawar 1044.8.2Gemstones Market in Hazara Division 1074.8.3Gemstones Marketing in Rawalpindi Islamabad 1074.8.4Gemstones Marketing in Gilgit and Hunza 1084.8.5Gemstones Marketing in Azad Kashmir (AJK)1084.9Name of Gemstones and their Localities in Pakistan 1094.10Market Constraints 1134.11Recommendations 113SECTION 5 A DETAILED ANALYSIS OF THE COMPONENTS PERTAINING TO THE GEMSTONES MINING /QUARRYING, VALUE ADDITION AND MARKETING INCLUDING CLEAR IDENTIFICATION OF CONSTRAINTS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR GEMS COMPETITIVENESS IN BALTISTAN REGION 5.1Scope and Purpose of the Study 1155.2Introduction 1155.3Factors Affecting the Value of Gemstones 1165.4Gemstones Pegmatites of Baltistan and their Mineral Contents 1175.5Present Status of Gemstone Industry in Northern Area 1185.6Present Mode of Gemstone Mining and Related Activities in Baltistan 1195.7Constraints 1205.7.1Mining Constraints 1205.7.2Gemstones Cutting, Polishing and Testing / Certification Constraints 1215.7.3Marketing Constraints 121 S. No.Title Page No.5.8Strategy to Develop Gemstone Industry 1225.8.1Mining 1225.8.2Cutting and Polishing 1235.8.3Marketing 1235.9Development of Gemstones Testing and Certification Laboratory in Baltistan1245.10Proposal for the Establishment of Gemstones Development Centre in Baltistan 1255.11References 126Annexures Annexure A: Imahashi MFG. CO. LTD.1-20Annxure B: Gemmological Instruments 1-17Annexure C: List of Important Worldwide Contact Addresses, Fax and Telephone Numbers 1-12Annexure D: List of Names and Places of Important Gem Shows / Centres 1-11Anexure E: Latest Position of Worldwide Gemstones Production 1-14 SECTION 1
scope, profile and methodology
Pakistan is blessed with large deposits of different kinds of minerals comprising of industrial minerals, dimension stones, metallogenic deposits, gemstones pegmatites and alluival deposits of noble and rare earth metals.
1.1 mining
The country has some 5,000 operational mines employing near 300,000 workers of the 92 known minerals in the country. Out of the known minerals only 58 are commercially exploited, with an annual production of around 14 million metric tonnes, while 23 minerals are important contributors to economy. The share of the top 5 minerals including limestone, coal, aragonite/ marble, gypsum and dolomite is nearly 95%.
Major minerals / raw material imported are iron ores, coking coal, and phosphate rock which take up near 50% of imports valued at Rs. 10 billion in 2001 2002 (Reference: Foreign Trade Statistics of Pakistan 2001 2002).
The available mineral potential of the country if properly developed, exploited and processed are not only sufficient to meet the raw material requirements of our mineral based industry but if properly upgraded and exported can generate considerable foreign exchange component.
NWFP Province and particularly Northern Areas are rich in deposits of precious and semi precious stones. Rudimentary and unscientific methods are being employed in gemstone mining. Due to indiscriminate blasting, the crystals, which can fetch substantial prices, are flawed, thus reducing their prices considerably.
These stones if properly mined and processed can generate the employment opportunities for the people of remote areas and generate considerable foreign exchange.
1.2 Lapidary
Lapidary is a technical term used for gemstone cutting and polishing. A fine cutting and polishing of raw gemstones would enhance their value by many folds 10 to 50 times. This is only possible if there are available units of modern lapidary operating with latest technology. Presently, in the country gems processing industry, a dozens of small players are involved in cutting and polishing by simple and out dated tools that are not generally preferred by many traders/ exporters of the world market. Heavy reliance of local market on rough gem stone export is one of the important challenges for any effort of shifting the industry paradigm from non value added to value added exports.
Nature has gifted Pakistan with rich deposits of the finest and valuable gemstone in the world. Most of these deposits are concentrated in the Northern Areas of Pakistan, Malakand Division, Tribal Areas, Kohistan and Balakot Hazara and Azad Kashmir. Due to lack of latest processing units in the country this gemstone are being smuggled to India and Bangkok in raw form and then sold in the international market as a refined high cost item by other countries.
The present government has implemented a strategy for the lapidary and mining sector to boost its potential. Therefore, a development package has been approved and is under consideration to declare the sector as a cottage industry besides spending on hiring of lapidary experts to impart training to the local people.
The most feasible area for setting modern units of lapidary is Baltistan situated in the Northern Areas, where the rough stones of different categories are available in large proportion. The area is also comparatively more advantageous in human development potential.
1.3 Marketing
The beautiful precious stones of Baltistans has great potential in the local as well as in the international market if proper strategy is undertaken for the lapidary sector development, which is the main source of proving the final product. This will also create opportunities for the youth of the area to start their own business.
Pakistan has emerged as the fifth largest country for the occurrence of gemstone on the world map, but it has been unable to penetrate the international market, as its average market share is only 0.31 percent of the total exports worldwide.
The exports of gemstone from Pakistan are increasing, but the growth is insignificant, as compared to the large potential that exits in the country. There is a need to increase not only the quantity of gemstone exported but also the quality. This can be achieved by developing lapidary industries in the country to add value to the rough stones that are being exported.
A lapidary institute for uplifting the standard of cutting and polishing skills in the Baltistan should also be established for human development of the area and access to resources needed for the improvement of livelihood.
Eradication of poverty is necessary to make and save the human potential available in the Baltistan for efficient utilization and for macro economic sustainable growth.
At present the total employment in gemstones sector, including mining and lapidary is around 30,000 of skilled and semiskilled labour. The present employment in Baltistan gemstone sector is around 5000 skilled and unskilled labour. However, the capacity is very low as compared to other labour forces working in manufacturing and semi manufacturing sector. Due to lack of knowledge about mining and total absence of value addition this employment is highly negligible as compared to its potential.
The macro economic stability is essential to the achievement of sustainable human development and to the elimination of poverty.
1.4 aims of the study
The study report has been prepared with the aim:
To improve the gemstones mining methods in Baltistan and to save the gemstone deposits from destruction and to minimize the damages of the delicate gemstones crystals as a result of present mode of primitive and antiquated mining methods.
To set up a modern lapidary in Baltistan to impart training in gemstones cutting and polishing to the local people. This will directly benefit the poor people in the area to increase their earning capacity and to streamline the human potential to play its role in the sustainable economic growth.
To advice on marketing and promotion of strategy for both national and international and to upgrade existing markets and target potential new markets.
1.5 Objectives of the Study
The scope and objectives of the study are to advise on applying suitable mining methods for gemstones extraction and the setting up of lapidary training centre at Baltistan.
To help the local people to improve the quality of human potential through technical training in the gemstones cutting and mining.
To expand the access of poor persons to the community based services facilities through information and awareness.
To strengthen the role of labour forces and to increase their working ability with providing them necessary facilities as required.
To help in social action programme and to assist private and public investors in setting up profitable entrepreneur with assured guarantee of labour harmony in working condition.
The protection of the environment in the area is necessary to stop the degradation of the natural resources that are available in the area. This can be made through public awareness and government policies implementation.
The present way and manner of marketing the gemstone products in Baltistan brings very modest monetary benefits to the local dealers and miners in the region. The ultimate aim of the study is to suggest value addition, to publicize the gem products and to open new ways and channels to promote the sale of gemstones at regional, national and international level. All such market trends, channels and destinations for gemstones marketing have been suggested in the study report. Proper marketing methods if adopted can boost up the sale of gemstones of Baltistan at international level prices.
1.6 PROFILE OF BALTISTAN (DISTRICT BALTISTAN AND DISTRICT GHANCHE)
1.6.1 Location
Situated in the northeast corner of Pakistan and Southeast of Gilgit, Baltistan division is the Central government administered area. Baltistan (Baltiyul as known to locals) comprises of the Indus, Shyok and Shigar valleys. The boundaries of contemporary Baltistan is defined by Gilgit in the west, Indian part of Ladakh in the east, Kashmir in the south, and to the north, along the crest of the Karakoram mountain range, the border with Sinkiang, China.
The high mountains of the Himalayan, Karakoram and Ladakh ranges characterize the entire area. The presence of numerous high peaks 20,000 feet above sea level, including K-2, the second tallest mountain in the world, has gained Baltistan world fame as Paradise of Mountaineers. The Indus River, which rises in southwestern Tibet and is augmented by the glacial Zanskar, Suru, Shyok and Shigar rivers, sweeps through the region.
Glaciers, the longest in the world outside the Polar Regions, reaching sixty miles in length, surround Baltistan in the north and west, separating her from China and Gilgit.
The area of Baltistan is 30,000 square kilometer with a total population of approximately 350,000. The Government of Pakistan conducted National Census in 1998, and declared the population of Baltistan to be 303,000. Composed of agrarian peasants, the subsistence of the majority of the population relies on agriculture, livestock forming, and tourism, down country migration for unskilled and semi-skilled jobs for livelihood.
The absence of industries and proper roads, lack of energy sources, and an exponential population growth have forced thousands to leave the region for other parts of Pakistan in the quest for livelihood. Parents are compelled to send their children to work rather than to school, thus depriving children of the right to education.
Approximately 93 percent of the population consider Balti as their mother tongue. The remaining seven percent are bilingual, speaking Purigi, Shina and Kashmiri along with Balti.
1.6.2 Baltistan comprises of Two Districts
District Baltistan (Skardu) including 5 No. of tehsils i.e. Gultari, Sharmang, Rondu, Shigar and Skardu.
District Ghanche including 3 No. of tehsils i.e. Daghoni, Khaplu and Mashabrum.
Skardu is the principal town in Baltistan district and Divisional Headquarter. It lays in 42L Topo sheet of survey of Pakistan. It is 650 Km from Islamabad and 275 Km from Gilgit. Road access is via the Karakoram Highway from Islamabad to the junction of the Indus and Hunza rivers and in southeast along the Indus valley.
1.6.3 Access to Baltistan
The Skardu town has a sealed airstrip and is serviced by Jet B 737 air services, which are weather dependent. The best way to get to Skardu is by air. The flight takes about an hour from Rawalpindi. .
Skardu town is 14 Km (9 miles) from the airport and the drive takes 30 minutes by jeep.
The road to Skardu of about 141 Km (88 miles) journey along the Indus takes seven hours from the turn-off on the Karakoram Highway and the total journey time from Islamabad is around 15 hours.
From April to October it is hot and dry, with little or no rainfall. A hot dry wind blows over Skardu from Deosai plateau. Nights are however, very cool.
1.6.4 Climate and Habitation
The climate is arid. The air being much rarefied, the weather is extreme, and especially the winter is severely cold. During summer, the weather of Baltistan is pleasant Rainfall ranges from zero to 1½ inches in Baltistan.
Baltistan climate is characterized by prolonged winter (October to 31st March) a very pleasant spring (1st April to 15th May) a mild pleasant summer (16th May to 31st August) and autumn (1st September to 15th October).
The highest temperature is 350 to 400 in some valleys and in winter the minimum temperature is minus 200C.
Irrigation is carried out with the help of ice-melt water drawn by canals from the upper courses of streamlets and rivers that emanate from the snouts of glaciers.
1.6.5 Drainage System
The rivers in Baltistan, the Indus, the Shigar, and the Shyok, have longitudinal course. The Indus, throughout its course through Ladakh and Baltistan, has a northwest trend and has given rise to a long defile between the Himalayas and the Kailsa Range. The Shyok and Shigar join the Indus near Gol and Skardu respectively.
1.6.6 Lakes
The lakes of Bltistan can be classified into two groups according to their mode of origin - glacial lakes and alluvial basins. The alluvial basins have been formed by the deserted loops of rivers mostly in the Shigar and Indus valleys. The Baltistani name for lake is Tso.
Satpara Lake is situated 8 Km (5 miles) away from Skardu, a drive of about 20 minutes. On the way from Skardu Satpara is excellently preserved Buddhist monuments, which can be reach by crossing a small stream and climbing a rocky slope, an easy walk of about an hour.
Kachura Lake is also very beautiful, surrounded by orchards which blossom in April and meadows full of flowers. It is about 32 Km (20 miles) down river from Skardu, a drive of about two hours.
1.6.7 Valleys
Shigar is the easiest valley to get to. It is about 32 Km (20 miles) from Skardu, a drive of about two hours. It is gentle, smiling countryside, with irrigated fields of wheat, maize and barley and orchards reputedly bearing some of the best fruits in the world. The town of Shigar is picturesque, with wooden architecture and a very old wooden mosque.
The jeep track continues up the Shigar valley to Dassu 80 Km (50 miles) away, getting ever more beautiful as it goes northwards. From Dassu begins the long and famous trek to Concordia, the starting point for assaults on some of the highest mountains in the world.
The other valley worth visiting for the non-trekker and non-mountaineer is along the Shyok River to the Khaplu valley near the border with Ladkah, 100 Km (62 miles) from Skardu a drive of about 3 hours. Eventually, one reach the town of Khaplu where the valley broadens and a majestic view of one of the mighty peaks, Masherbrum, 7,820 metres (25,660 ft) can be seen.
1.6.8 Structure
The strike of the mountain ranges and also that of the rocks in Blatistan is northwest.
1.7 Methodology
1.7.1 Details were collected from the following departments including
Department of Geology University of Peshawar.
National Center of Excellence in Geology, University of Peshawar.
Department of Mining Engineering UET Peshawar
Geological Survey of Pakistan.
Gem and Gemmological Institute of Pakistan (GGIP), Peshawar.
Field visits
Detail discussion with the officials of BCDF.
1.7.2 Independent Association/ Dealers
Discussions with gemstone dealers participated in 1st. Himalayan Karakoram Gem and Mineral Show held at Holiday Inn, Islamabad, 12-13 September 2006.
Organized by: Baltistan Gems and Mineral Association (BGMA)
Blatistan Enterprise Development and Arts Revival (BEDAR) Programme.
Funded by Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) Islamabad.
Discussion with the gems dealers of the area and main market in Peshawar
Detail interviews of the local mine operators in Baltistan.
Contacts through friends living abroad and on line information form Internet including catalogues and agents of the International Companies dealing with Lapidary Machinery and Gem Testing Equipment.
1.7.3 In Depth Interviews
Interviews with resourceful persons including:
Mr. Ismail of about 80 years age at Khaplo District Ghanche who has spent most of his life in search of gemstone deposits.
Mr. Zarmast Khan, Managing Director, Azhar Gems & Minerals, Yadgar Chowk Skardu with his another office at Asghar Market Gemstone Plaza, Namak Mandi, Peshawar. He has vast practical experience in gemstones dealing not only at regional level in Baltistan but also of the local gemstones market at Namak Mandi, Peshawar as well as abroad particularly in Germany.
1.7.4 Structured and Unstructured Interviews
Interviews with Gemstones Dealers in Skardu Bazar as well as with the Local Dealers at Dassu Shigar particularly at Shingus Roundu areas where the locally mined gemstones are kept in tin boxes under lock & key and are shown only to the actually interested buyers.
1.7.5 Secondary Data
A lot of secondary supporting data collected is annexed at A, B, C, D and E at the end of the report.
SECTION 2
IMPROVEMENT OF MINING / QUARRYING TECHNIQUES AND TO SUGGEST WAYS ON CAPACITY ENHANCEMENT OF LOCAL MINERS
PART 1: GEOLOGY
2.1 INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
Baltistan region is famous for precious and semi precious gemstones in the Northern Area of Pakistan. The gemstones mostly concentrate in to the pockets or cavities of the zoned pigmatitic dikes or veins. The gemstone pigmatites of Baltistan consist of two regions Karakoram which include Shigar and Ghanchi valleys. The Haramosh regions include Stak Nala and Shigus Valley. These gemstones are present in the cavities or pockets of the pigmatites bodies. Internal structure, texture and mineralogy of these bodies are variable at different locations of the regions. Tourmaline (Schorl) is abundant in the entire gem producing localities, while other gemstones are specific two certain localities. This suggests the role of variable geo-chemical conditions/ parameters during the formation of gemstones with in these pigmatites.
GEMSTONES are minerals, which when cut and polished become precious and can be used in jewellery. They are extremely beautiful, rare, and amenable to cutting, polishing and durable. Although more than 2000 species of minerals are known, only about 100 of these are commonly fashioned into gems, of which only 25 to 30 types are commonly used in jewellery.
Pegmatites are exceptionally coarse-igneous rocks that are generally characterized by richness in big crystals of the component minerals. Crystals of some of the pegmatite minerals are occasionally of exceptionally large sizes. Pegmatites are essentially mixed rocks that consist of intimately associated members of igneous (Granitic rocks) and metamorphic (Gneisses, Schists etc.) rock.
Significance of Pegmatite: Pegmatite is an important source of many gem minerals useful in gems and jewellery industry and is also a source of rare minerals along with other minerals used as raw material in mineral based industries.
2.2 MODE OF GEMSTONES OCCURRENCE
The geographical distribution of gemstones is quite accidental in an uneven style. Resultantly, the present occurrence and distribution of gemstones shows a remarkable diversity. Like the worldwide pattern of distribution, the occurrence of gemstones in the northern mountainous belts of the country is also confined to a few discernible geological zones of the region. As the gemstones occur in tiny crystals and small sizes, they have not been amenable to discover or evaluation by direct exploration methods and also do not respond favorably to geophysical techniques. Even drilling is not of much use as it too can miss the crystals growth. The only exception to this generalization is some kinds of diamond-bearing volcanic pipes, which can be explored by established methods. (GSP, 2002).
2.3 detailed report on Gemstones and their localities in Baltistan, Northern areas of Pakistan
2.3.1 Gemstone Mineralization of Baltistan Region
Gemstones Found In Pegmatites
Continental collision results in the upwelling of the magma from the interior of the earth and its emplacement (or intrusion) in the rocks near the earths surface in the form of large granitic rock bodies. Towards the late stage the cooling and consolidation of these rocks the residual magmatic fluid was squeezed upward along the faults, fissures and joint planes to form extensive veins of coarse crystalline rocks, some of which contain rich gemstone deposits. As shown in figure 1.
Examples are;
Aquamarine, Tourmaline, Garnet, Topaz, Feldspar (Common Stone), Quartz.
2.3.2 Gem Pegmatites of Baltistan and their Mineral Contents
The gem pegmatites of Baltistan are found in two regions:
1. Karakoram 2. Haramosh
LocationAltitude (feet)Gemstones Other minerals KARAKORAMS Dussu 8500 9000Aquamarine, Rose quartzPlagioclase, feldpsar, quartz, muscovite, biotite, schorl, beryl Nyet Bruk14000 15000Brown topazPlagioclase feldspar, tourmaline, muscovite, beryl Gone8000 9000Aquamarine, Brown topazPlagioclase, orthoclase, quartz, muscovite, biotite, schorl, berylTigstun 8000 9000 Aquamarine, Garnet Plagioclase, quartz, muscovite, biotite, schorl, beryl.HARAMOSHStak Nala10000 12000Biocolour tourmaline, Aquamarine Feldspar, quartz, mica, fluorite, schorl, berylShere Shah Batot Shingus 7000 12000Aquamarine, Topaz, Goshenite, Morganite Feldsbar, quartz, mica, garnet, schorl, tourmaline, berylTable: 1.1 Locations of Gems in Baltistan area
Figure 1: Geological MAP of Gem Bearing Baltistan Region showing gemstone locations.
2.4 GEM BEARING PEGMATITES OF THE HARAMOSH REGION
Gem pegmatites are abundant in the southern part of the lofty Haramosh Mountains. The Indus River flows through this region and has cut a narrow canyon near Shingus. An all-weather road linking Gilgit with Skardu runs through the area on the bank of the Indus. The MMT and the associated Raikot and Stak faults form a narrow U-shaped loop in this region giving rise to a structural feature commonly referred to as the Nanga Parbat-Haramosh syntaxis. The Precambrian Nanga Parbat gneissic complex and associated late stage granitic intrusions are exposed in the core of this loop and form an anticline. Extensive swarms of pegmatites are seen in this gneissic complex and this area comprises one of the major pegmatite districts.
2.4.1 In the Haramosh region the gem-bearing pegmatites occurs at four principal localities:
In the vicinity of the Haramosh peak.
Near Shingus village, on the north bank of the Indus.
Near Bulechi village, on the south bank of the Indus.
In the Stak Nala, near Ghorapa village
The pegmatites in the Haramosh Shingus, Bulechi and Stak Nala localities form extensive swarms, with outcrops extending up to a few kilometres and ranging in thickness from a few centimeters to several meters. They occur in a variety of shapes, forming a network of parallel veins, with some veins intersecting each other. They also occur as arcuate or crescentic lenses. The pegmatites are commonly discordant, though some show a concordant relationship. As shown in figure no 2.
The pegmatites have been emplaced along two distinct sets of joints, one striking north-east and the other north-west. The pegmatites have been physically deformed by folding, offset by faulting and in places have been mylonitized. Slow cooling has created perthitic textures in some portions of the pegmatites. Alteration of feldspar to kaolinite and seam filling with limonite is commonly observed.
The pegmatites range in thickness from a few centimeters to several meters and vary in length from a few meters to 100 m or more. They largely cut across the foliation and have been intersected and offset by a number of right lateral wrench faults.
The pegmatites are zoned and consist of an outer fine-grained granitoid or aplitic zone and an inner coarse-grained pegmatitic zone with vugs and cavities ranging from 5 cm to almost 1m across. Often the central zone is kaolinized. Near the outer margins of a few pegmatites there is a thin zone of radiating schorl crystals or crystals of blue or green albite and garnet. Other pegmatites lack this zone and contain randomly distributed vugs and cavities.
In general the pegmatites are composed of feldspar (largely albite and microcline 60%), quartz (10 15%), biotite and muscovite (5 10%) and schorl (1 5%). Almandine garnet occurs in a few pegmatites. Beryl commonly occurs as phenocrysts in the groundmass. Beautiful euhedral crystals of feldspar, quartz, tourmaline, mica and gem grade aquamarine occur in vugs and cavities, grown on and between plates of albite. A few pegmatites contain sparsely-distributed, euhedral crystals of goshenite, morganite, colourless topaz, green elbaite-large euhedral crystals of bicoloured (brown and clear) elbaite, lepidolite and spodumene.
The Stak pegmatites have become famous for euhedral crystals of bicoloured and tricoloured tourmaline, which occur in vugs and cavities, inter grown with quartz, feldspar and mica, commonly jacketed by platy albite (cleavelandite) crystals. The elbaite crystals are typically zoned; the base of the crystals are opaque and coloured black, brown or dark green; the terminations are translucent to transparent and colourless, pink or blue. Occasionally, well developed, euhedral crystals of green fluorite or violet to pink fluorapatite are also found inter grown with other crystals in the cavities.
Figure 2: Geological Map of Shingus Buleche Pegmatite
2.5 gemstones and gem bearing pegmatite of stak-nala roundo
2.5.1 Tourmaline Bearing Pegmatites at Stak Nala
These pegmatites are located 13 km north of the Indus River on the West Side of the Stak valley, at an elevation of approximately 2800m. A rough drive road leads from the Gilgit-Skardu road to Toghla village, and a footpath provides access to the pegmatites about 2 km north and 400 m above -the valley floor as shown in figure no 3. Local villagers first discovered tourmaline in the area in the early 1980s. Exploration soon afterward by the Gemstone Corporation of Pakistan (GEMCP) revealed abundant tourmaline mineralization at two bodies of pegmatite located about 0.5 km apart, with similar pegmatite bodies towards south. Most production of tourmaline and associated minerals has come from a single 1-m-thick sill (hereafter called the main mine). Much less tourmaline has been mined from a thicker (up to 4 m) pegmatite (hereafter called the south mine) located 500 m south, at the same elevation as shown in Figure No. 4.
Figure 3: Regional Geological Map of Northern Pakistan (after Searle 1991).
Figure 4: Main Mine at Stak Nala
2.6 geology and structure at stak nala mine
At the Stak Nala mine, orthogneiss predominates. Near to the south of mine, the layered gneisses dip gently (
